What makes up a forest ecosystems

Humans have the potential of either positively or negatively influencing the future of global forest ecosystems. Photo courtesy of Peter Kolb, University of Montana.

Diagram of various components that comprise forest ecosystems in the United States. Illustration courtesy of Peter Kolb, University of Montana. Some trade-offs between ecosystem services occur because different tree species provide different ecosystem functions and services Gamfeldt et al.

Hence, at local scales, promoting certain tree communities may maximise some, but not all, ecosystem services of interest. As a result, forest ecosystem multifunctionality generally increases with both tree Gamfeldt et al. Therefore, recent studies have investigated whether larger-scale biodiversity, caused by a high spatial turnover in species composition i.

This has turned out to be the case, as a high beta-diversity ensures that different localities complement each other in the ecosystem functions and services they provide Mori et al. Because of the large amount of data that is required for research on biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality, this field has only taken off relatively recently.

Hence, despite many recent advances, there are still many unresolved questions regarding how biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality can be simultaneously maximised in natural forests.

For example, it is unknown whether the positive effects of local-scale tree species richness on ecosystem multifunctionality are even stronger when co-occurring species differ significantly in their traits or evolutionary origins, although such information can be crucial for planting multifunctional forests.

In addition, it is known that forests can provide multiple ecosystem services to neighbouring landscape units, such as agricultural fields Mitchell et al. However, whether the benefits of diverse forests for neighbouring fields are greater than those of species-poor forests is still an open question. With the increasing interest in understanding what drives multifunctional landscapes, it is likely that these and other related questions will be investigated in the future.

Our review confirms that forest type and tree species richness affect forest biodiversity and that forest diversity can be an important factor in ecosystem function and the provision of ecosystem services.

We also need to better evaluate the effect of different levels of tree diversity; not only species but also genetic and functional diversity. And while canopy trees are obviously a dominant feature of forests, the diversity of understorey plants, vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi and microbes is also likely to be important for ecosystem services.

Furthermore, many ecosystem services remain comparatively poorly studied in forests in relation to biodiversity; this applies particularly to cultural services but also to some provisioning services see Table 1 and Fig.

There is clearly a need for more research in this area to enable evidence-based advice for forest management and policy to enhance the provision of ecosystem services see also Mori et al. For natural forests this discussion may seem somewhat academic, as it is unlikely that tree species composition and diversity would be altered substantially in the interest of ecosystem services.

Nevertheless, it is important to raise awareness about the role of natural forests and forest diversity in the provision of ecosystem services to highlight their value beyond the provision of timber and recreation. However, for planted forests there is ample opportunity for optimising their composition and diversity because replanting after harvesting is a recurring process. If it can be shown that there are opportunities for adding value and for increasing the resistance or resilience of planted forests, these should be good incentives for forest owners and managers to consider alternatives to the monoculture paradigm of most planted forests.

The relevance of forest ecosystem services does not stop at the forest edge. There is much scope for synergies between forests and farming land uses; for example, even small patches of forest can benefit crop production by enhancing pollinator and natural enemy populations, although they may also provide disservices Decocq et al. Adding planted forests to catchments dominated by dairy farming reduces greenhouse gas emissions and improves water quality Monge et al.

These are also important considerations in the debate about land sharing vs. Clearly, any afforestation plans should carefully consider previous land use in terms of the likely biodiversity and conservation outcomes e. Finally, any planted forest plan should evaluate options for mixed-species forests Pretzsch et al.

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New Phytol — Ecol Appl — You cannot download interactives. A limiting factor is anything that constrains a population's size and slows or stops it from growing. Some examples of limiting factors are biotic, like food, mates, and competition with other organisms for resources. Others are abiotic, like space, temperature, altitude, and amount of sunlight available in an environment.

Limiting factors are usually expressed as a lack of a particular resource. For example, if there are not enough prey animals in a forest to feed a large population of predators, then food becomes a limiting factor. Likewise, if there is not enough space in a pond for a large number of fish, then space becomes a limiting factor.

There can be many different limiting factors at work in a single habitat, and the same limiting factors can affect the populations of both plant and animal species. Ultimately, limiting factors determine a habitat's carrying capacity, which is the maximum size of the population it can support. Teach your students about limiting factors with this curated collection of resources. Trophic levels provide a structure for understanding food chains and how energy flows through an ecosystem.

At the base of the pyramid are the producers, who use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own food. Herbivores or primary consumers, make up the second level. Secondary and tertiary consumers, omnivores and carnivores, follow in the subsequent sections of the pyramid. At each step up the food chain, only 10 percent of the energy is passed on to the next level, while approximately 90 percent of the energy is lost as heat.

Teach your students how energy is transferred through an ecosystem with these resources. A biome is an area classified according to the species that live in that location. Temperature range, soil type, and the amount of light and water are unique to a particular place and form the niches for specific species allowing scientists to define the biome.

However, scientists disagree on how many biomes exist. Some count six forest, grassland, freshwater, marine, desert, and tundra , others eight separating two types of forests and adding tropical savannah , and still others are more specific and count as many as 11 biomes. Use these resources to teach middle school students about biomes around the world. A biotic factor is a living organism that shapes its environment. In a freshwater ecosystem, examples might include aquatic plants, fish, amphibians, and algae.

Biotic and abiotic factors work together to create a unique ecosystem. Learn more about biotic factors with this curated resource collection. An abiotic factor is a non-living part of an ecosystem that shapes its environment. In a terrestrial ecosystem, examples might include temperature, light, and water.

In a marine ecosystem, abiotic factors would include salinity and ocean currents. Abiotic and biotic factors work together to create a unique ecosystem. Learn more about abiotic factors with this curated resource collection.

A habitat is an environment where an organism lives throughout the year or for shorter periods of time to find a mate. The habitat contains all an animal needs to survive such as food and shelter. A microhabitat is a small area which differs somehow from the surrounding habitat. Its unique conditions may be home to unique species that may not be found in the larger region. Unfortunately, some habitats are threatened by pollution, extreme weather, or deforestation.

This puts many of the species that live there in danger and is causing many populations to decline. Explore different types of habitats and microhabitats with this curated collection of classroom resources.

A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and the interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given area.

Examples of terrestrial ecosystems include the tundra, taigas, temperate deciduous forests, tropical rainforests, grasslands, and deserts.

The type of terrestrial ecosystem found in a particular place is dependent on the temperature range, the average amount of precipitation received, the soil type, and amount of light it receives.

Use these resources to spark student curiosity in terrestrial ecosystems and discover how different abiotic and biotic factors determine the plants and animals found in a particular place. Dive into Earth's most extreme marine ecosystems using this map and doing this activity. Students investigate types of marine ecosystems, identify examples of these ecosystems and their characteristics, and locate the ecosystems on a map of the world's oceans.

Marine ecosystems are aquatic environments with high levels of dissolved salt. These include the open ocean, the deep-sea ocean, and coastal marine ecosystems, each of which have different physical and biological characteristics.

Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students. Skip to content. Twitter Facebook Pinterest Google Classroom. Arne Pommerening. Call for papers 3D Remote Sensing for Forests - Progress and Perspective This thematic series covers a range of topics related to 3D remote sensing in forest environments, from terrestrial to spaceborne platforms, from active to passive sensors, and their applications across diverse forested landscapes.

Review papers summarizing past and ongoing progresses and original research papers reflecting recent developments are particularly welcome, including studies about thematic information extraction, new techniques for forest mensuration, new missions, as well as new algorithms and applications. Submit Now. Published collections National Forest Inventories — informing past, present and future decisions. Also to visit the collections page for all the thematic series published by Forest Ecosystems.

Forest Ecosystems is an open access, peer-reviewed journal publishing scientific communications from any discipline that can provide interesting contributions about the structure and dynamics of "natural" and "domesticated" forest ecosystems, and their services to people. The journal welcomes innovative science as well as application oriented work that will enhance understanding of woody plant communities.

Very specific studies are welcome if they are part of a thematic series that provides some holistic perspective that is of general interest. The publication costs for Forest Ecosystems are covered by Beijing Forestry University, so authors do not need to pay an article-processing charge for each article accepted for publication.

Beijing Forestry University. Speed 70 days to first decision for reviewed manuscripts only 34 days to first decision for all manuscripts days from submission to acceptance 23 days from acceptance to publication Citation Impact 3.